SAPEM: 14 chapters of the South African Pavement Engineering Manual

SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual (Second Edition, October 2014), is a 14-chapter best-practice guideline from the South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL) (SANRAL, 2014a). It follows pavement work from testing and investigation through design, construction and monitoring, points to other manuals, and is not a specification (SANRAL, 2014a). This guide maps the chapters without reprinting them.

Key facts

• SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, has 14 chapters and a Second Edition dated October 2014, issued as an initiative of the South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL).
• SAPEM Chapter 1 states that SAPEM is a best-practice guideline, not a specification, with no legal standing in a court of law.
• SAPEM Chapter 1 sorts the 14 chapters into eight groups: background, testing and laboratory, investigation, design, documentation and tendering, implementation, quality management and post-construction.
• SAPEM Chapter 13 is titled Quality Management; only the opening chapter map labels it Acceptance Control, a term that inside the chapter names the engineer's supervisory checking.
• SAPEM refers to TRH 12 for pavement investigation, TMH 9 for visual assessment and TRH 4 for road categories and terminal condition; it expected COTO guidelines to become TMH 13.
• SANRAL, the South African National Roads Agency, publishes SAPEM as one PDF per chapter on nra.co.za; several file names say Appendix or Appendices although the files hold whole chapters.

What is SAPEM, and is it a standard?

Chapter 1 states that SAPEM is a best-practice guideline, not a specification, with no legal standing in court, and does not replace the manuals it cites (SANRAL, 2014a). A pavement is the layered structure of surfacing, base, subbase and subgrade that carries traffic loads.

TMH (Technical Methods for Highways) and TRH (Technical Recommendations for Highways) are two series of South African road manuals, and COTO is the Committee of Transport Officials, the body behind the recent drafts. This guide follows four of them: TRH 12 (Draft, 1997) for rehabilitation investigation (Department of Transport, 1997), TRH 4 (Draft, 1996) for flexible pavement design (CSRA, 1996), TMH 9 (Committee Draft Final, May 2016) for visual assessment (COTO, 2016b), and TMH 13 (Committee Draft Final, May 2016) for automated condition measurement (COTO, 2016d).

A contract takes its limits from the specification it names. The COTO Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works (Draft Standard, October 2020) say that they will replace the Standard Specifications of COLTO, the Committee of Land Transport Officials (1998 Edition) (COTO, 2020a). SAPEM Chapter 4 draws the same line: the TRH documents are recommendations, while the COLTO document is the official specification (SANRAL, 2014i).

What are the 14 chapters of SAPEM, and how are they grouped?

Chapter 1 sorts the 14 chapters into eight groups, which this guide calls work stages (SANRAL, 2014a). The table adds each chapter's next stop. The road prism is the whole formation: embankments, cuttings and the pavement.

Chapter	Title	Work stage	Next stop for the detail
1	Introduction	Background	TRH 4 road categories
2	Pavement Composition and Behaviour	Background	Chapter 10 for design
3	Materials Testing	Testing and laboratory	SANS 3001 national test methods
4	Standards	Testing and laboratory	The specification the contract names
5	Laboratory Management	Testing and laboratory	Accreditation under ISO 17025
6	Road Prism and Pavement Investigations	Investigation	TRH 12, TMH 9 and TMH 13
7	Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations	Investigation	Chapter 6, its companion
8	Material Sources	Investigation	Authorisation and land acquisition
9	Materials Utilisation and Design	Design	TRH 14 (1985) material classes
10	Pavement Design	Design	TRH 4 and TRH 12
11	Documentation and Tendering	Documentation and tendering	Contract conditions and specification
12	Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines	Implementation	Chapter 13, its companion
13	Quality Management	Quality management	The specification's acceptance rules
14	Post-Construction	Post-construction	TMH 9, TMH 13 and TRH 12

Stage names follow the chapter map in Chapter 1 and titles follow each cover (SANRAL, 2014a); each next stop comes from the chapter's own text (SANRAL, 2014g) (SANRAL, 2014h) (SANRAL, 2014i) (SANRAL, 2014j) (SANRAL, 2014k) (SANRAL, 2014l) (SANRAL, 2014m) (SANRAL, 2014n) (SANRAL, 2014b) (SANRAL, 2014c) (SANRAL, 2014d) (SANRAL, 2014e) (SANRAL, 2014f).

Narrated film · 1:38

SAPEM: 14 chapters in eight stages

A radial map sorts the 14 chapters into eight work stages; a synthetic flagged road moves from Chapter 14 through Chapters 6, 3 to 5, 10 and 9, and 11 to 13 back to monitoring; arrows run from SAPEM to TRH 12, TMH 9, TRH 4 and TMH 13; the callout reads: SAPEM is a guideline, not a specification.

Read the film transcript

Is SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, a standard or a specification? Chapter 1 answers plainly: it is a best-practice guideline, not a specification. The October 2014 Second Edition has fourteen chapters and no legal standing in a court of law. Chapter 1 sorts the fourteen chapters into eight groups, from background to post-construction. In between come testing, investigation, design, documentation, implementation and quality management. In a synthetic example, Chapter 14 monitoring flags a road, and Chapter 6 guides the investigation. Chapters 3 to 5 cover testing, 10 and 9 cover design, and 11 to 13 cover tender, construction and quality. Chapter 14 then returns the road to monitoring. Chapter 6 points to TRH 12 for investigation strategy and to TMH 9 for degree and extent. SAPEM points to TRH 4 for categories and terminal condition, and expected measurement guidelines to become TMH 13. SAPEM leaves four things to others: the governing manual and edition, the detail, a condition index, and local detail. Chapter 13 is Quality Management, not Acceptance Control, and an Appendix file can hold a whole chapter. Cite Chapter 10 as October 2014, and read SAPEM's manual names as the 2014 outlook. SANRAL publishes one PDF per chapter, so read each cover and cite chapter, edition and section. SAPEM is a guideline, not a specification, so cite chapter and edition. Next, read TRH 12 for investigation, then TRH 4 for flexible pavement design.

Which SAPEM chapters does one piece of pavement work use, and in what order?

Work on a flagged road runs through Chapters 14, 6, 3 to 5, 10 and 9, and 11 to 13, then returns to Chapter 14.

Synthetic example, with every value invented. A network survey flags 12.0 km of Synthetic Road S1, from chainage 14.0 km to 26.0 km. Chainage is the distance along the road from its start.

1. Chapter 14 sections 3 and 5 describe the monitoring and pavement management that produce such a flag (SANRAL, 2014f).
2. Chapter 6 section 7.1 follows the strategy in TRH 12: a desk study of management data and as-built records, a visual assessment and surveillance measurements, which are instrument readings such as roughness, rutting, texture and deflection (SANRAL, 2014k).
3. Chapter 6 section 7.2.2.1 defines uniform sections: stretches where condition and structure are similar, each given one rehabilitation design (SANRAL, 2014k). Suppose the work gives three: 14.0 to 18.0, 18.0 to 23.5 and 23.5 to 26.0 km. Check: 4.0 + 5.5 + 2.5 = 12.0 km, with no gap or overlap.
4. Chapter 6 sections 7.4 and 8 cover test pits, cores and samples; Chapters 3 to 5 hold test methods, limits and laboratory practice (SANRAL, 2014k) (SANRAL, 2014a).
5. Chapter 10 section 5 sets out the investigation and design process; Chapter 9 section 15 describes a design-equivalent class, which treats a layer in service as equivalent to a new material class for design (SANRAL, 2014b) (SANRAL, 2014n).
6. Chapters 11 to 13 carry the design into tender documents, trial sections and acceptance control (SANRAL, 2014c) (SANRAL, 2014d) (SANRAL, 2014e).
7. Chapter 14 returns the finished pavement to monitoring (SANRAL, 2014f).

The example shows order, not method. A uniform section groups stretches by behaviour, so it is not the standard rating segment of TMH 9 Part A section A.3 (COTO, 2016b). The guide on which manual serves which job places this order among the other manuals; from investigation to a SAPEM pavement design follows steps 2 to 5.

What does SAPEM point to for TRH 4, TRH 12, TMH 9 and TMH 13?

Each row is a place where SAPEM sends the reader elsewhere (SANRAL, 2014a) (SANRAL, 2014k) (SANRAL, 2014f).

Where in SAPEM	What SAPEM says	Where the detail sits
Chapter 1 section 4	Table 1 maps functional road classes to TRH 4 road categories	TRH 4
Chapter 6 section 7.1	Existing-pavement investigation follows the strategy in TRH 12	TRH 12
Chapter 6 section 7.3.5	Distress degree and extent follow the visual assessment manuals	TMH 9
Chapter 6 section 7.3; Chapter 14 section 3.4	Roughness, rutting, texture and deflection devices	TMH 13
Chapter 14 sections 4.3 and 7.1	Terminal condition (when rehabilitation is due) refers to TRH 4; rehabilitation design to TRH 12	TRH 4 and TRH 12
Chapter 14 sections 2 and 5	Asset and pavement management, under the label TRH22	TMH 22 (Draft, March 2013) and TRH 22 (Draft, 1994)

SAPEM predates the May 2016 committee drafts of TMH 9 and TMH 13. Its list of major guidelines names TMH 9 (1992) and the COTO network-level measurement guidelines of 2007 to 2010, and expected both to be reissued (SANRAL, 2014a). Read those sentences as the 2014 outlook, then check which edition the client names.

The insight on TRH 12 rehabilitation investigation shows why investigation comes before treatment. The insight on layered elastic response explains why response and performance models do different jobs; Chapter 6 section 7.3.4 describes backcalculation, which works out layer stiffnesses from measured deflections, typically with layered elastic theory (SANRAL, 2014k). Chapter 10 section 7 covers structural capacity, with the Pavement Number at section 7.2 (SANRAL, 2014b); this guide goes no further. The page on SAPEM texture and skid resistance treats texture and skid as different records and cites a TMH 13 Part E listing, not SAPEM text.

What does SAPEM not decide?

SAPEM leaves four things to other documents or to the client.

• Which manual or edition governs a project. The client's terms of reference and the contract decide; state the choice in the report.
• The detail. Chapter 1 calls SAPEM an overview with references for the rest, warns against following it by rote and advises against using it as the main source on geotechnical investigation or tunnelling (SANRAL, 2014a).
• A condition index. Chapters 6 and 14 send the reader to the visual assessment manuals for ratings and define no visual condition index (SANRAL, 2014k) (SANRAL, 2014f).
• Local detail. SAPEM is written for the highest level of application, with caveats for provincial, municipal, district and metro roads (SANRAL, 2014a). Chapter 14 Table 1 says SAPEM does not discuss maintenance in detail and points to the SANRAL Routine Road Maintenance Manual (2009) (SANRAL, 2014f).

What are the common misreadings of SAPEM?

• "Chapter 13 is called Acceptance Control." The cover and the chapter list in section 1.2 of Chapter 1 give Quality Management. Only the chapter map on the opening pages uses Acceptance Control as its label, and inside Chapter 13 the term names the engineer's supervisory checking under the Standard Specifications (SANRAL, 2014e).
• "A file named Appendix holds only an appendix." The files for Chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, 12 and 13 carry Appendix or Appendices in their names but hold the whole chapter (SANRAL, 2014h) (SANRAL, 2014j) (SANRAL, 2014k) (SANRAL, 2014l) (SANRAL, 2014d) (SANRAL, 2014e).
• "Chapter 10 is a 2013 document." Its copyright page prints 2013 for the second edition, but its cover is dated October 2014. Cite October 2014 (SANRAL, 2014b).
• "A design-equivalent class is a specification class." Chapter 9 section 15 assigns it to a layer already in service, and that layer does not necessarily satisfy the specification for the class (SANRAL, 2014n).
• "SAPEM names today's manuals." Chapter 14 labels the parts of the asset management manual "TRH22", yet the list matches the parts of TMH 22 (SANRAL, 2014f) (COTO, 2013). Chapters 6 and 14 also expected a revised TMH 9; read that as a 2014 expectation (SANRAL, 2014k) (SANRAL, 2014f).

Where is the official SAPEM download, and how should SAPEM be cited?

SANRAL publishes SAPEM as one PDF per chapter on nra.co.za, for example Chapter 1, and each cover reads Second Edition, Date of Issue October 2014 (SANRAL, 2014a). Copies on learning-platform and document-sharing sites are not the publisher's files. Read the cover of any copy for chapter number, edition and date, because file names and PDF titles mislead; several chapter files carry a leftover title reading Chapter 2.

On first mention cite the chapter, title, edition and section: SAPEM Chapter 6, Road Prism and Pavement Investigations (Second Edition, October 2014), section 7.1. Say what a chapter sets out or lists; SAPEM is not a specification, so never write that work complies with it.

Last reviewed on 21 October 2026 against SAPEM (Second Edition, October 2014) and the editions named above.

What should you keep when you rely on SAPEM?

• The chapter, section and edition cited, with the client instruction or contract clause that names the governing manual and edition.
• The investigation reports that Chapter 6 section 9 lists, such as the initial assessment and the detailed assessment and design report (SANRAL, 2014k).
• The as-built reports and completion report that Chapter 13 section 11 lists (SANRAL, 2014e).
• The cover page of each file used, with the download date.

Frequently asked

Is SAPEM a standard or a specification?

No. SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual published by the South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL), describes itself in Chapter 1 as a best-practice guideline. It is not a specification and has no legal standing in a court of law. A contract takes its limits from the specification it names, so check the contract documents before treating any SAPEM statement as binding.

Which edition of SAPEM should be cited?

Cite SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, as the Second Edition, October 2014, the date of issue on the cover of each chapter; the first edition appeared in January 2013. The copyright page of Chapter 10 prints 2013 for the second edition, so cite October 2014 there too. Name the chapter, its title and the section, for example Chapter 6, Road Prism and Pavement Investigations, section 7.1.

Where is the official SAPEM download?

The South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL) publishes each chapter of SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, as its own PDF on nra.co.za. Several file names say Appendix or Appendices, yet the file holds the whole chapter, so read the cover to confirm the chapter number and the October 2014 date. Copies on learning-platform and document-sharing sites are not the publisher's files and may be out of date.

What is SAPEM Chapter 13 called?

Chapter 13 of SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, is titled Quality Management on its cover and in the chapter list in Chapter 1. The chapter map on the opening pages labels it Acceptance Control, which is also the Standard Specifications' term for the engineer's supervisory quality control of construction. The chapter covers quality plans, acceptance control, as-built reports and the completion report.

What does SAPEM leave to TRH 4, TRH 12, TMH 9 and TMH 13?

SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, gives an overview and names TRH 12 for investigating an existing flexible pavement, TMH 9 for visual assessment, TRH 4 for road categories and terminal condition, and measurement guidelines from COTO, the Committee of Transport Officials, that it expected to be reissued as TMH 13. TMH (Technical Methods for Highways) and TRH (Technical Recommendations for Highways) are South African road manual series. SAPEM predates the 2016 committee drafts.

Does SAPEM cover road condition surveys?

Partly. In SAPEM, the South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 6 section 7 covers investigation of existing pavements, including roughness, rutting, texture, deflection and visual observations, and Chapter 14 section 3 covers monitoring over the service life. Both send the reader to the visual assessment and measurement manuals for ratings and procedures, and neither defines a visual condition index for road pavements.

Where this connects

The next two manuals are TRH 12, which carries the investigation of an existing flexible pavement into rehabilitation design (Department of Transport, 1997), and TRH 4, which sets out the structural design of a flexible pavement (CSRA, 1996). Chapter 10 and TRH 4 both address pavement design; the client's terms decide which governs. The guide on TRH 4 or SAPEM Chapter 10 sets them side by side.

References

1. SANRAL (2014a). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 1: Introduction. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
2. Department of Transport (1997). TRH12: Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and Design. Draft TRH12, Pretoria: Department of Transport for COLTO. Original source.Chapter 1: rehabilitation design process; investigation, evaluation, analysis and economic appraisal
3. CSRA (1996). TRH4: Structural Design of Flexible Pavements for Interurban and Rural Roads. 1996 edition. Original source.Design framework; confirm project applicability
4. COTO (2016b). TMH9: Manual for Visual Assessment of Road Pavements. Part A: General. Committee Draft Final, May 2016. Original source.Section A.2: degree and extent
5. COTO (2016d). TMH 13: Automated Road Condition Assessments. Part A: General. Committee Draft Final, May 2016. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
6. COTO (2020a). Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for South African Road Authorities. Draft Standard, October 2020. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
7. SANRAL (2014i). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 4: Standards. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Section 2.3.1: TRH 14 classification, with the box on TRH and COLTO material requirements
8. SANRAL (2014g). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 2: Pavement Composition and Behaviour. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Section 4: pavement design considerations, with the design methods carried to Chapter 10
9. SANRAL (2014h). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 3: Materials Testing. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Section 1: introduction, including the translation of TMH 1 test methods into SANS 3001
10. SANRAL (2014j). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 5: Laboratory Management. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections 1.1 and 2.1: SANAS accreditation and ISO 17025
11. SANRAL (2014k). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 6: Road Prism and Pavement Investigations. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
12. SANRAL (2014l). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 7: Geotechnical Investigations and Design Considerations. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Section 1: introduction and planning (Chapters 6 and 7 are complementary); section 1.2: chapter scope
13. SANRAL (2014m). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 8: Material Sources. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections 2.5 and 2.6: authorisation process and land acquisition
14. SANRAL (2014n). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 9: Materials Utilisation and Design. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
15. SANRAL (2014b). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 10: Pavement Design. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
16. SANRAL (2014c). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 11: Documentation and Tendering. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
17. SANRAL (2014d). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 12: Construction Equipment and Method Guidelines. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Section 4: trial sections
18. SANRAL (2014e). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 13: Quality Management. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
19. SANRAL (2014f). South African Pavement Engineering Manual, Chapter 14: Post-Construction. Second Edition, October 2014. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide
20. COTO (2013). Draft TMH 22: Road Asset Management Manual. Draft, March 2013. Original source.Sections, tables and clauses are cited inline in each guide

Use the manual edition and project requirements that apply to your work. Worked examples use synthetic values and are not site-specific design advice.